When asked who individuals wanted to compare themselves with, the majority chose people who achieve higher scores (Wheeler, 1966). The Social Self: The Role of the Social Situation ), Handbook of self and identity (pp. If Facebook users have a stronger ability-based social comparison orientation, their psychological well-being decreases via upward contrastive emotions (e.g., depression and envy) toward the comparison other; however, it increases via downward assimilative emotions (e.g., worry and sympathy). Were more likely to engage in downward social comparisons in situations where our sense of self and wellbeing is under threat; these downward social comparisons make us feel better about ourselves (Wills, 1981). To take an example from my own experience, I have found that although I can bask in my good friend Toms accomplishments in his career as a lawyer, it is more difficult for me to bask in my colleague Thanes success in his career as a social psychologist. At this point, the experimental manipulation occurred. There are many more beneficial ways to develop self-esteem, and chasing after someone elses successes so that you can feel proud of yourself is hardly healthy. Results from a national cross-sectional survey of adolescents (N=340) reveal that social media use, romantic motivations, social belongingness motivations and greater social comparison tendencies are associated with online aggression victimization (R2=0.38). Psychological Bulletin, 119 (1), 5169. 2884). Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity: A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366374. =0.75; 74% female; 41% White, 38% Black). Morry and Sucharyna (2016) argue that dating, as compared to marital relationships, are imbued with higher levels of uncertainty as they lack external forms of commitment such as marriage. 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Social identity refers to the positive emotions that we experience as a member of an important social group (Hogg, 2003; Oakes, Haslam, & Turner, 1994; Tajfel, 1981). Social Comparisons (Upward and Downward) | SpringerLink The following factors moderate the strength of the upward drive: However, we are not always motivated to improve our ability/skill/opinion after upward social comparison, and upward social comparison can have detrimental effects. American Journal of Psychology, 121(1), 169172. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Social comparison is basic to social psychology. Kay Deaux and her colleagues (Deaux, Reid, Mizrahi, & Ethier, 1995) asked college students to list the groups that they identified with. Social comparison of ability on social media had a positive association with concurrent rumination, which predicted higher identity distress. CrossRef Google Scholar. Motivation as a determinant of upward comparison. If we feel that the quality that is being compared is important, then we are also more motivated to conform to the groups behaviors and opinions. The list that follows presents a measure of the strength of social identity with a group of university students, which might give you a good idea of the variable. They preferred to wait with other people who were expecting to undergo the same severe shocks that they were rather than with people who were supposedly just waiting to see their professor. Social comparisons in different directions have different effects on individuals (Festinger, 1954). Jennifer K. Johnson | Couzens, Lansky, Fealk, Ellis, Roeder, Patient Education and Counseling, 47, 13. Although prior research has established associations between the mass media-related glamorization of unrealistic standards of female beauty and women's body image concerns, theory-driven research on the impact of social media use on women's body image concerns is scarce (Perloff, 2014). This study only focused on the interpersonal factor (i.e., marriage quality) as a moderating variable, not investigating the potential moderating roles of personality factors and other interpersonal factors. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 5169. Social comparison and affiliation under threat: Effects on recovery from major surgery. Retrieved from https://positivepsychology.com/social-comparison/. For instance, people may wonder whether their relationship is doing well compared to their friend's relationships. Jay Fallon, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, Utica, MI, 48317, (586) 554-2904, Taking that first step in deciding to come to therapy can be a difficult decision, but at Social comparison: The end of a theory and the emergence of a field. Upward social comparison on mobile social media and Social Comparison Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S., & Heiman, R. J. Given the pervasive use of Facebook among college students, exposure to a friend's Facebook profile may also increase uncertainty through the friend's overly positive comments and photos (Chou & Edge, 2012). Beautiful or ugly? However, these two types of assessments are not equally useful. Previous research on relationship social comparisons (e.g., Buunk, 2001, Buunk etal., 2001, Buunk and VanYperen, 1991) explicitly asked individuals to make a comparison to a friend's relationship and the limited relationship social comparison interpretation research (Morry & Sucharyna, 2016) followed the same pattern. Vrugt, A., & Koenis, S. (2002). For example: For each item, participants indicate their level of agreement on a five-point scale, ranging from I disagree strongly to I agree strongly. The scale has high reliability (ranging between .78 to .85 for various samples), indicating that the measurements are stable. In this study, participants from European American and East Asian cultures were asked to choose a pen as a token of appreciation for completing a questionnaire. Kind regards, Wood et al. 5169. I always like to know what others in a similar situation would do. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. While Morry and Sucharyna found differences in predictors for satisfaction (negative, positive downward) and commitment (negative, positive upward) we tested for mediation. WebPublished 1996. Currently, Facebook users have on average 338 Facebook friends, although the median is 200 friends (Mazie, 2015) providing frequent opportunities to make social comparisons. Van Lange, P. A. M. (2008). When better-than-others compare upward: Choice of comparison and comparative evaluation as independent predictors of academic performance. That is, one must first make a comparison which then affects one's cognitions, the RSCI, and it is these cognitions that then predict relationship quality. with honors, 1996, Board of Directors of the Detroit Friendship House, Michigan Bar Association Probate and Estate Planning, Elder Law and Disability Rights Section, Past member of Rochester Rotary Club (1997-2004), Drafting complex estate planning documents: wills, codicils, trusts, financial and health care powers of attorney, deeds and ancillary documents, Analyzing legal and tax issues related to estate planning, Analyzing and preparing documents related to gifting strategies, Estate and trust administration for individual and corporate fiduciaries, Corporate and limited liability company formation and capitalization, General representation of business entities. Keep it up! Upward social comparison Oxford, England: Blackwell; Tajfel, H. (1981). Social Comparison If he can run a half-marathon, then so can I. I feel happy knowing that I beat my neighbor in the half-marathon. Sometimes these behaviors make us feel better and can be motivating; however, they can also lead to detrimental side effects. Abstract We examined the role of social comparison in changes in the artistic self-concept of adolescents attending an advanced arts programme. One answer is to adopt an attitude of gratitude. Some evidence exists that the immediate use of social media results in: The relationship between upward social comparison on social media and depression is more complicated than it appears. Very insightful piece! European Americans were significantly more likely to choose the more uncommon pen color in both cases. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Higgins, E. T., Loeb, I., & Moretti, M. Similar to previous relationship social comparison research, we expected that how one interprets the comparison (i.e., the RSCI) would be important to personal well-being. With upward social comparisons, we can become motivated to strive toward new achievements because someone like us has reached these achievements too; however, we might also be constantly reminded that we are inferior to someone else. Results indicate that different types of online social comparison yield distinct implications for young people's identity development. The outcome of Schachters research was clearwhile only 33% of the women who were expecting mild shocks preferred to wait with others, 63% of the women expecting to get painful shocks wanted to wait with others. When individuals dislike exposure to an actively coping role model: Mood change as related to depression and social comparison orientation. Social Comparison Social comparison is a normal behavior strategy where we seek to better understand our status relating to ability, opinion, emotional reaction, and more, by comparing ourselves to other people. BP Buunk, RL Collins, SE Taylor, NW VanYperen, GA Dakof. In North America, social comparisons related to opinions, abilities, or emotions often occur from viewing social media such as Facebook (Lee, 2014, Steers etal., 2014), suggesting that relationship social comparisons may also occur through social media. I always pay a lot of attention to how I do things compared to how others do things. Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51(4), 593607. Drawing on the theories of social comparison, introspective processes, and identity distress, we examined a dual-path model. (1995). 1562. Studies including control groups indicated effects in response to upward and downward targets were comparable in size and contrastive. Any disagreements in the coding would need to be resolved before coding continued. When we are able to compare ourselves favorably with others, we feel good about ourselves, but when the outcome of comparison suggests that others are better or better off than we are, then our self-esteem is likely to suffer. For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Want to create or adapt books like this? ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. 2023, Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2023, Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 2022, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2022, Applied Research in Quality of Life, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 83, 2018, pp. Only a few studies have examined relationship social comparisons with dating individuals (Smith LeBeau and Buckingham, 2008, Morry and Sucharyna, 2016, White, 2011) and none to our knowledge have examined relationship social comparisons on Facebook. Parts of this manuscript were presented at the 2016 Society for Personality and Social Psychology Conference, San Diego, CA. WebCitation. My friend is smarter than I am. This positive relation between relationship quality and happiness holds even after controlling for personality (Demir, 2008). Before he knew it, he was laid off. Jay Fallon, Clinical Social Work/Therapist, Utica, MI, 48317 Each of us was born in a unique set of circumstances, in a unique environment, and our successes are not limited by the people who we compare ourselves to. (1981). Our ancestors survived by depending on the collective for food, shelter, physical caregiving, reproduction, [], Chamber of Commerce (KvK) Registration Number: 64733564, 6229 HN Maastricht. Therefore, we expand on Morry and Sucharyna research by manipulating relationship social comparisons using mocked-up Facebook profiles and then testing the mediation hypothesis for relationship quality and behaviors (attention to alternatives). However, they were significantly less likely to wear university clothing on the Mondays that followed a football loss. WebAccordingly one finds in political science, in sociology, and in social psychology a variety of distinctions among different types of social power or among qualitatively different social comparison theory meta-analysis As digital natives they have grown up immersed in digital technology, and around 90% use social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, Snapchat and YouTube (Yellow, 2018).Whilst benefits are The categories that they listed included ethnic and religious groups (e.g., Asian, Jewish), political affiliations (conservative, Democratic), occupations and hobbies (gardener, tennis player), personal relationships (husband, girlfriend), and stigmatized groups (gay, homeless). Festinger (1954) argued that the outcome is even more severe in cases when we are comparing opinions, because this divergent individual poses such a threat to our evaluation of our own views that we consider them removed from the group and will no longer talk to them. For example, I am more motivated to improve my ability/skills when I dont feel like the comparison person will treat me poorly or like I am inferior. In regards to life satisfaction, university students report that sources of life satisfaction include their romantic relationships, academic performance, and quality of family relationships (Schimmack, Diener, & Oishi, 2002). In short, and as predicted by the idea of social comparison, the women in Schachters studies relied on each other to help them understand what was happening to them and to find out how they should feel and respond to their social situations. 1996. Information motivations and entertainment motivations are negatively associated with online aggression perpetration, but romantic motivations, social comparison, and social media use were positive predictors (R2=0.34). The aim of the current study was to examine associations between making social comparisons on social networking sites with mothers parenting, mental health, and romantic relationship outcomes. Again, the power of the social situationin this case, in determining our beliefs and attitudesis apparent. A., & Taylor, K. M. (1999). Culture, self-discrepancies, and self-satisfaction. For Better or Worse: The Impact of Upward Social More specifically, upward comparisons would predict lower satisfaction with life, happiness, and state self-esteem. Furthermore, in a study in which students from a university were asked to describe a victory by their university team, they frequently used the term we, whereas when asked to describe a game in which their school lost, they used the term we significantly less frequently. Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Festingers argument begins with the initial hypothesis that evaluating our skills and opinions is extremely important for our survival. You can see that these identities were likely to provide a lot of positive feelings for the individuals. (1988). Are you rich or poor? Moreover, Facebook has more than 2 billion users (Statista, 2017) and average usage across all ages is estimated at 34min per day (Asano, 2017). In fact, one study suggested that in the top 10% of happy individuals, all but one person was currently involved in a romantic relationship (Diener & Seligman, 2002). Further, women's social comparison levels partially mediated the relationship between attachment anxiety and body satisfaction. 92-102, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 70, 2017, pp. Most of us would want to know how we are performing compared to others who appear to be better off. For example, students starting college might feel overwhelmed with academic and social expectations, and graduates starting their first job might also rely on social comparisons as a way to judge their performance. WebA social comparison theory meta-analysis 60+ years on These meta-analyses of 60+ years of social comparison research focused on 2 issues: the choice of a comparison target The affective consequences of social comparison: either direction has its ups and downs. These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients to build healthy, life-enriching relationships. Despite the high reliability, researchers accept and recognize that admitting making social comparisons is considered very undesirable; for these reasons, it is probably always better to follow up any assessment with an open-ended interview or questions to probe some of the responses on the scale (Buunk & Gibbons, 2007). But I am less motivated if I must make these comparisons in person by coming in contact with the comparison person. In addition, both types of relationship comparisons were negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. In downward social comparisons, we compare ourselves to other people who are worse off. Other researchers also suggest that the impact of social comparisons on one's own sense of self, perceptions of the partner, or the relationship depends on both the comparison direction and the individual's interpretation of what this comparison means for the self (Lockwood & Pinkus, 2008). For each of the following items, please indicate your response on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) by writing a number in the blank next to the question. (2005). I am less motivated when the comparison person treats me poorly. The other half of the participants (those in the low-anxiety condition) were also told that they would be receiving shocks but that they would in no way be painfulrather, the shocks were said to be mild and to resemble a tickle or a tingle. Of course, the respondents were randomly assigned to conditions to assure that the women in the two conditions were, on average, equivalent except for the experimental manipulation. Most (90%) American college students are members of social networking sites (Perrin, 2015). I assist in writing support letters to assist clients with their transition. Which of our many category identities is most accessible for us will vary from day to day as a function of the particular situation we are in. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Previous studies on this issue have mainly focused on adolescents and college students, but less on married adults well-being. I kind of looked up to him. Parameters of social identity. ), Handbook of social comparison (pp. For example, I am more motivated to improve my ability/skills when I can make comparisons privately. After making a specific relationship social comparison these interpretations impact not only one's relationship quality, but also the amount of attention paid to alternative partners and how one feels about the self. Still, one pattern seems clear: the outcome of social comparisons hinges on who we are, who we are comparing ourselves to, and what we want from the comparison. In literature, this comparison is known as social comparison. Although upward comparison may lower our self-esteem by reminding us that we are not as well off as others, it is useful because it can provide information that can help us do better, help us imagine ourselves as part of the group of successful people that we want to be like (Collins, 2000), and give us hope (Snyder, Cheavens, & Sympson, 1997). Love this article, helped me a lot in my research but how do I reference this article please? In this article, we will explore social comparison theory and how our social comparisons can lead to positive and negative emotions. 857913). Further examination of interactions and indirect effects suggests that romantic motivations for social media use are an important predictor of involvement in online aggression among adolescents. Collins Together we will create a safe and sacred space where you can be your truest selves, share your deepest pain, and emerge stronger and live a more satisfying life. Morse, S., & Gergen, K. (1970). We use social comparison to determine the accuracy and appropriateness of our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. A., Hershenberg, R., Bhatia, V., Latack, J. Where is the evidence for pancultural self-enhancement? Adler, M. G., & Fagley, N. S. (2005). Collins, R. L. (1996). Independent t-tests comparing the upward and downward profiles indicated that after viewing the upward profile participants reported that Hannah and Ryan had a better relationship (overall relationship quality), were more satisfied with the relationship, and were less attracted to alternatives than after viewing the downward profile (see Table1). As such, Facebook may provide numerous opportunities online for relationship social comparisons that may influence ongoing romantic relationships offline. Liu, Q. Q., Zhou, Z. K., Yang, X. J., Niu, G. F., Tian, Y., & Fan, C. Y. The typical inclination is to compare upward. Across all three comparison conditions (upward, downward, and lateral), negative interpretations were rated lower than the positive upward and positive downward interpretations. Their greater response to downward social comparisons is not echoed in upward social comparisons. Enhancing satisfaction through downward comparison: The role of relational discontent and individual differences in social comparison orientation. Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social comparisons. Social comparison occurs primarily on dimensions upon which there is no objectively correct answer and thus on which we can rely only on the beliefs of others for information. Adoption and maintenance of health behaviors among middle And how do you know? (2002). Families can be a source of great happiness, warmth, and love, yet they also suffer from trauma and conflict, resulting in damaged connections and broken [], One of the most prominent sources of emotional distress is relationship conflict. ), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. (2020). Perceived control is positively related to life satisfaction for users valuing independence (vs. interdependence) when experiencing positive emotions, whether engaging or disengaging (e.g., anger). A theory of social comparison processes. In Western cultures, previous offline research indicates that social comparisons with friends' dating relationships are common (Morry, 2011) and these comparisons affect relationship satisfaction (Buunk & Van Yperen, 1991). Individuals averaged 20.80 years of age (SD=4.94) and had been dating for approximately 24.30 months (, In Study 1, we manipulated the comparison direction (upward, downward) using a mocked-up Facebook profile of a heterosexual couple. We can browse our friends photographs, read updates about their lives, and learn about big and special events. upward For example, when cancer patients meet other patients whose illness has progressed further, they reported that they felt threatened. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds. I specialize in working with gender and sexual minorities including LGBTQ individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 280291. Ive provided a list of some everyday examples where we might use comparisons. Dr. Zilstein stressed how important it was to learn about the effects of shocks, since electroshock therapy was being used more and more commonly and because the number of accidents due to electricity was also increasing! New York, NY: Kulwer Academic/Plenum. Effects of anxiety and socially mediated anxiety reduction on paired-associate learning. Coombs, C. H. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302318. As shown in Figure 4.7 Cultural Differences in Desire for Uniqueness, and consistent with the hypothesized preference for uniqueness in Western, but not Eastern, cultures, the European Americans preferred to take a pen with the more unusual color, whereas the Asian American participants preferred one with the more common color.